Empowering Women through African Pentecostal Corporate Social Responsibility
HELEN ADEKUNBI LABEODAN
Abstract
This paper considers how women may be empowered through African Pentecostal Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) by examining ways organizations use CSR to develop their images in society with social welfare work beyond statutory compliance. Referencing practices described in narratives of the Gospels and Acts and combining critical analysis of historical documents with key informant interviews, the project analyzes the Christ Apostolic Church, Missionary Headquarters, Ita Baale Olugbode, Ibadan, to discover and assess its regular programs of CSR. Specifically, the author uses collected data to determine answers the following questions about Christ Apostolic Church: In what programs is the church involved that address social challenges in communities they serve? How effective are these programs? Does the church have a deliberate policy to address community social issues? Is the policy evident as a guide for the church in CSR matters? How does the church’s CSR policy impact women? Key words: Empowerment, Pentecostal, CSR
Now in those days, when the disciples were increasing in number, the Hellenists complained against the Hebrews because their widows were being neglected in the daily distribution of food. Acts 6:1 NRSV
Introduction
The Hellenists in the text above realized widows (women) were being neglected. Today, in Nigeria and beyond, some women also are being neglected. As a solution to the problem in the early church, the disciples “chose Stephen, a man full of faith and the Holy Spirit” and others to attend to the women (v. 5). The early church’s selection of a person “full of faith and the Holy Spirit” reflects qualities of Pentecostal Christians as emphasized by the Pentecostal churches. Is the model of early church social welfarism in which women were given a place of priority the practice in most Pentecostal churches today?
Matthew 14:14 records that Jesus fed the multitudes out of compassion for them. Jesus meeting the needs of the people without an ulterior motive may be compared to the ideal of social responsibility, in today’s parlance, since Jesus’ actions benefited the society. When social responsibility is viewed as a duty of institutions and organizations, it is labeled Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR). Organizations engage in CSR when they undertake activities for social welfare beyond statutory compliance. Jesus’ action was socially significant since, as Matthew 14:21 records, the number of those who had eaten were about 5000 men besides women and children. What implications do these two references from the Bible—one modeling attention to widows/women and the other showing compassion for a large group of persons—have for corporate social responsibility? This paper considers how women may be empowered through African Pentecostal Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR). Specifically, the paper analyzes institutional Pentecostal expressions of “compassionate” action in society by examining ways they use CSR to develop activities for social welfare, especially in relation to empowerment of women.
What Is Women’s Empowerment?
Empowerment means persons taking or being given power or authority to participate at a higher level in an institution or community, or to take or be given power to overcome barriers that once limited one from engaging specific activities, such as holding church authority. The issue of women’s empowerment has become relevant in recent times owning to the realization that women have not been given due recognition for contributions they make towards the development of the societies and organizations (including churches). Women’s roles as procreators, nurturers and homemakers are vital for the survival and the progress of every nation, organizations, and religious institution; yet their roles often are not appreciated. Failure to recognize women’s contributions is stark in developing countries, where gender disparity is highly rampant as compared to most developed countries.[1]
The United Nations Population Fund assesses the empowerment and autonomy of women and the improvement of their political, social, economic and health status as a highly important social end in and of itself. However, in all parts of the world women are facing threats to their lives, health, and well-being because of being overburdened with work and lack of empowered influence. In most regions of the world, women receive less formal education than men and at the same time women’s own knowledge, abilities and coping mechanisms often go unrecognized.[2]
Empowerment is a process through which people obtain social, economic, and political authority to free themselves from injustices in society.[3] Empowerment names a situation in which disadvantaged people, organizations and communities acquire the needed control over issues causing the problems that affect them.[4] According to Faitira Manurer and Neria Phiri, the concept of empowerment cannot be identified as having a single definition.[5] Instead, empowerment must be understood in relation to the specific needs of the people who are yearning for empowerment.[6] Furthermore, empowerment refers to a multi-dimensional social process that helps people gain control over their own lives. According to Nanette Page and Cheryl E. Czuba, it is a process that fosters power of people for its use in their own lives, their communities, and in their societies to act on issues that they define as important.[7] Empowerment is a multifaceted, multidimensional and multi-layered concept. It is a process in which people acquire social, economic, and political authority to liberate themselves from injustices in society. It is a situation in which people, organizations and communities acquire the needed control over the problems that affect them.
In relation to women, empowerment refers to a situation in which they are given opportunities to participate fully in the social, political, and economic spheres of life. It refers to women’s ability to make strategic life choices where that ability had been previously denied.[8] Cheryl Blalock Aspy and Daya Singh Sandhu see women’s empowerment as entailing and creating an enabling environment in which women are allowed to implement government programs and organizational policies that affect their lives.[9] Empowerment of women is a process in which women gain a greater share of control over resources— material, human and intellectual (including knowledge), information, ideas and financial resources—as well as access to money and control over decision-making in the home, community, society and nation. Women’s empowerment has many components. First is women’s sense of self-worth. Second is their right to have the power of control of their own lives, both within and outside the home. Lastly is their ability to influence the direction of social change to create a just social and economic order nationally, internationally, and universally.
Women’s empowerment is essential for the development of society, since empowerment means individuals acquiring the authority to think and act freely as they exercise choice and fulfil their potential as full and equal members of society. Endalcachew Bayeh assesses women’s empowerment through assertions of the United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM), for which the term women’s empowerment means
- Acquiring knowledge and understanding of gender relations and the ways in which these relations may be changed.
- Developing a sense of self-worth, a belief in one’s ability to secure desired changes and the right to control one’s life.
- Gaining the ability to generate choices [and] exercise bargaining power.
- Developing the ability to organize and influence the direction of social change, to create a more just social and economic order, nationally and internationally.
Drawing on these defining themes from UNIFEM, Bayeh concludes
empowerment means a psychological sense of personal control or influence and a concern with actual social influence, political power and legal rights. It is a multilevel construct referring to individuals, organizations and community. It is an international, ongoing process centered in the local community, involving mutual respect, critical reflection, caring and group participation, through which people lacking an equal share of valued resources gain greater access to the control over these resources. [10]
Hence, women’s empowerment is all about allowing and equipping women to make life-determining choices across different issues in the society.
Today, women are emerging as leaders in a growing range of fields. One can name any profession and women are there. They are leaders in aeronautics, medicine, space, engineering, law, politics, education, or business, and more. Although women are emerging as leaders in many fields, women’s empowerment is possible only by adopting definite social and economic policies with a view toward total development of women. Many modern women have indeed risen above the past notions, above an assigned inferior status, now having more self-esteem and with little or no fear of actions by commanding and oppressive men. Women strive to stand parallel to men and are independent of men. Women have realized that they are not mere puppets in the society but that they are pillars without which the foundation of society is incomplete. Still, victimized and exploited women are visible all over the world. Jo Rowlands opines that cases of gender inequality are more numerous in countries of Africa, Latin America and Asia.[11] Focus on empowering women in these regions is essential. Empowerment helps women experience access to opportunity that is equal to men and reduce the gaps between men and women. Empowering women is all about encouraging self-empowerment, self-esteem, personal growth, spiritual growth, or reclaiming authentic power and the power of the goddess within (the ability of a woman to learn more about herself and use it to her advantage). Women should be encouraged to break free from the chains of limiting belief patterns and societal or religious conditioning that traditionally kept them suppressed and unable to see their true inner power. Empowering women helps them to utilize their hidden potential, the exercise of which occurs as their status in the society improves and as women are strengthened economically.
Helping Women to Break Free
Patriarchal systems have confined women to specific areas such as the kitchen and to fixed gender activities such as bearing and rearing children, cooking, and cleaning. Even today, women in some areas are viewed as property and not as persons who have their own likes and dislikes and who are deserving of opportunities for self-development. The most important step to shifting this is to initiate ground level actions—however small they might seem—which should be focused toward changing the prevalent social attitudes and practices that are highly biased against women. This can begin by working with women at the root level and focusing on increased access for women to opportunities and increased control of women over resources and decision-making.
Women require assistance in breaking free from poverty. Poverty is the main cause for women’s lower bargaining power. Hence, social sources of women’s poverty should be removed. Empowering women and removal of poverty go hand in hand. Strengthening the roles women play in economic structures and practices is critical to reducing poverty, improving health and education outcomes, and achieving other broad development goals within a society.[12] Access to education is an important element of decreasing women’s poverty. Educational achievement and economic involvement are key constituents in ensuring the empowerment of women. Education has enlightened women about their contributions and enhanced visions of their roles. The economic empowerment of women is a critical element of strong economic growth in any country. Empowering women enhances their ability to influence changes and to create a better society.
When educated, women contribute to economic development. Mahatma Gandhi observed, “You educate a man, you educate an individual. You educate a woman; you educate an entire family.” According to the United Nations Population Fund (UNPF), education is one of the most important means of empowering women. Education provides women with the knowledge, skills, and self-confidence necessary to participate fully in the development process. Empowering women includes promoting the fulfilment of women’s potential through that occurs through education, skill development and employment, all of which are paramount to the elimination of poverty, illiteracy, and ill health among women. Part of the UN’s Beijing Declaration is that equality of access to and attainment of education is necessary if more women are to become agents of change. Literacy of women is key to improving health, nutrition, and education in the family and to empowering women to participate in decision-making in society. Also, policy and program actions that improve women’s access to secure livelihoods and economic resources alleviate their extreme responsibilities related to housework, remove legal impediments to their participation in public life, and raise social awareness. Formal education is an effective factor in women’s empowerment. When women have formal basic education, enter universities and then begin part-time or full-time work, they have better control over their lives. Studies show that in developing countries, education and employment strengthen the situation of women in society and increase their authority and power. Ann Cotton opines that education for girls has been identified as one of the best solutions to reverse the relentless trend of poverty and disease devastating a large portion of Sub-Saharan Africa.[13]
The empowerment of women is one of the most important issues of the 21st century, not only at the national level but also at the international level. Barack Obama affirms that when women succeed, nations are safe, secure, and prosperous;[14] while Kofi Annan, the 7th United Nation Secretary General, asserts that there is no more effective tool for development than the empowerment of women.[15] Many national governments have undertaken efforts to ensure gender equality, but governmental initiatives alone are not sufficient to achieve the goal of empowering women. Other sectors of society must take initiative to create a climate in which there is no gender discrimination and wherein women have authority in decision-making as well as opportunities to participate in the social, political, and economic life of the country with a sense of equality. When women have power, the society at large benefits.
Many African countries, such as Nigeria and Sierra Leone, rank relatively low in terms of women’s empowerment, as noted in the 2011 Commonwealth Gender Equality Report that measures societies in relation to a range of indicators from life expectancy to education, political participation and wages. In fact, UN Women noted that many African women and their communities are worse off today than they were a decade ago. For millions of African women, hunger, violence, exclusion, and discrimination are everyday realities. In view of this, the work of providing healthcare and other supports for women’s empowerment cannot be only the prerogative or burden of governments. Work by faith-based organizations is also needed. Paul Gifford asserts that the church is a key element of “civil society.”[16]
What Is African Pentecostalism?
According to Allen Anderson, the Pentecostal and charismatic movements in all their multifaceted variety constitute the fastest growing group of churches within Christianity today.[17] In fact, these movements are reshaping religion in the twenty-first century.[18] Kwabena Asamoah-Gyadu is of the opinion that Pentecostalism can be understood as that stream of Christianity which emphasizes personal salvation through Christ as a direct, transformative experience wrought by the Holy Spirit.[19] When personal salvation is followed by pneumatological phenomena such as speaking in tongues, prophesies, visions, healing, miracles and signs and wonders, the direct experience is seen as evidence of the active presence of God’s spirit.
Ogbu U. Kalu confirms that across Africa, Christianity is thriving in all shapes and sizes, and that one strain of Christianity prospering more than most is Pentecostalism. Pentecostals believe that everyone can personally receive gifts of the Holy Spirit.[20] Pentecostalism has profoundly affected all forms of Christianity in Nigeria. The older churches are struggling to keep pace with the jet-setting entrepreneurs who head up these new Pentecostal organizations. One that is managing to do so is Christ Apostolic Church (CAC), the largest of Nigeria’s older Pentecostal churches. Theologically, the church sits somewhat between Aladura and classical African Pentecostal churches. Pentecostalism is big business in Nigeria.[21]
In the context of this essay, African Pentecostalism refers to the diverse African churches that emphasize the working of the spirit within the Christianity, particularly the appearance of ecstatic phenomena such as prophesy, speaking in tongues, healing, and exorcism. African Pentecostalism resulted largely from local initiatives, indigenous founders, and leaders who, in some cases, worked in active collaboration with foreign missions.[22] The masses across the world, especially in the third world, appear to be embracing Pentecostalism as their panacea for all of life’s problems by assuming it has the potential to take them out of their actual state of impoverished, squalid, disease-ridden lives. The messages of the Pentecostal pastors bring hope to the people. In Nigeria, Pentecostal churches became popular through teachings of a prosperity gospel and providing faith clinics and deliverance services which pastors assert offer solutions to the people’s problems.[23] Intensity of the born-again experience has also been described as propelling poor African people to another spiritual plane—one that is other worldly. Most Pentecostal churches in Nigeria/Africa can be described as corporations. They have leaders who head the organizations, boards of trustees, and a stated vision and mission. Also, because of the way the churches operate they could be regarded as corporate organizations.
Origin and Development of Christ Apostolic Church
Christ Apostolic Church (CAC) is a distinctly indigenous African church. By virtue of its structure, beliefs, and practices, it is an independent Pentecostal Church. The history of CAC is traceable directly to Oba/Pastor Isaac Babalola Akinyele, Pastor David Ogunleye Odubanjo, Mr. Joseph Sadare, Miss Sophia Odunlami, and the late Evangelist Apostle Joseph Ayodele Babalola. Apostle Babalola’s call to enter ministry on 11th, October 1928, subsequently led to the great revival of 1930. Before then, there was the 1918-28 Faith Tabernacle era of CAC’s history, characterized by the formation of praying groups such as the Precious or Diamond Societies that were found in small pockets all over Nigeria. The leaders in control were Joseph Sadare (a.k.a. Esinsinade), D.O. Odubanjo, I.B. Akinyele (late Olubadan[24] of Ibadan), and Miss Sophia Odunlami. Most members of the first group of the Diamond Society were worshipers at St. Savior’s Anglican Church, Ijebu-Ode, where they began meeting regularly for prayers and spiritual guidance in 1918. Mr. D. O. Odubanjo developed contact between members of the “Praying Band” and Pastor A. Clark, the leader of Faith Tabernacle in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in the United States, through which the group received tracts and magazines such as The Sword of the Spirit.
Tension arose between the group and the Anglican Church over such practices as divine healings, opposition to infant baptism, reliance on dreams and visions, and abstention from dancing, drumming, debt-owing, drinking of alcohol, gambling, and mixing with non-Christians. CAC’s history reports that Mr. Joseph Sadare was compelled to give up his post in the Anglican Synod, and others were forced to resign their jobs and to withdraw their children from the Anglican School. In less than a decade, branches of the group were established in Lagos, Ibadan, Ilesa, Oyan, Ile-Ife, Minna, Jos, and Zaria.
The great revival of 1930 led by Apostle Babalola emerged in July at Oke Ooye, Ilesa. Pastor Odubanjo, Oba Akinyele, and J. A. Babatope as well as Babalola’s followers J. A. Medayese, A. O. Omotoso, John Oye, J. B. Orogun, and Philip Mabigbade, among others, assisted during the revival. These were joined later by Prophet Daniel Orekoya. The Great Revival not only adopted all the beliefs accepted by the Faith Tabernacle group, but also went further by embracing the baptism of the Holy Spirit, the spiritual manifestation of seeing visions, prophesying, speaking in tongues and dreaming. There were reports that people with diverse diseases were healed in thousands and, in turn, they spontaneously rejected their “juju” and other medicines. Massive revivals hitherto unknown in Nigeria ensued. Thousands of people joined during the revivals.
With the swift, enormous growth of the movement, leaders faced a variety of challenges alongside intimidations, harassment, and humiliation from colonial authorities.[25] On their behalf, Mr D. O. Odubanjo sought cooperation with British Apostolic Church Brothers in Bradford, England. On 23rd September 1931 three missionaries—Pastor D. P. Williams, A. Turnbull, and W. J. Williams—arrived in Nigeria as guests of the CAC. In November 1931, the visiting missionaries ordained the first seven pastors of Faith Tabernacle Church who had earlier on been ordained through proxy by Pastor A. Clark in America. For a time, the religious activities of the white brothers complemented the religious activities of Joseph Ayo Babalola. Three of the new pastors, namely, Pastors J. B. Sadare, D. O. Odubanjo, and Oba I. B. Akinyele later came to play important roles in the growth of the Church. After the return of the white missionary delegates to England, Pastor George Perfect and Prophet Idris Vaughan came to Nigeria on 22nd June 1932 to strengthen the fellowship between the two religious bodies.
Christ Apostolic Church Practices, Theology, and Polity
Seven elements of CAC’s history make it distinctive.
1. CAC is the first Pentecostal church in Nigeria. With the claim of being Nigeria’s first Pentecostal church, CAC is one of the very few Nigerian churches that are unique. Moreover, as a major branch of the Aladura (praying or prophetic) movement, CAC was one of the first Aladura-related groups to be identified by elements associated with the Pentecostal emphasis on praying, faith, and healing. In the beginning, CAC was also known for attacking traditional religious practices, burning fetishes, idols, and healing.
2. The CAC founder is Joseph Ayo Babalola. In addition to founding the CAC, Babalola is a pioneer in the African independent church movement. Babalola (who lived from 25 April 1904 to 26 July 1959) was credited with healing powers.
3. Babalola’s call is described with similarity to call narratives from the Bible and is unusual in relation to ordinary narratives about the calling moments of preachers. Before he started his ministry, Babalola worked as a steam roller operator under the Public Works Department. It was while he worked that he heard God’s call. Reportedly, he heard a loud voice that sounded like the roar of thunder saying “Joseph! Joseph!! Joseph!!! Leave this job you are doing; if not, this year you are going to be cut off from the earth.” The initial call occurred by the river Ariran, at about 12 o’clock on 9 October 1928. He was called again to leave his job and start preaching on 11 October 1928. After praying and fasting, Babalola obeyed the call. This caused him to be sent out of the Anglican Church in his village. Eventually, Babalola was baptized in a Lagos lagoon in December 1929.
4. The church went through six names before settling on Christ Apostolic Church. At first, CAC was known as the Precious Stone/Diamond Society Okuta Iyebiye. Then, it was named Faith Tabernacle. After a while, the church became Africa Apostolic Church. This name caused problems for them with the Church Mission Society (CMS), so it became The Apostolic Church, then Nigeria Apostolic Church, and later United Apostolic Church. Another issue arose because this name created some confusion with an already existing organization called UAC. After some praying, it was finally named Christ Apostolic Church in 1942. The church was registered under this name in 1943 by the Federal Government of Nigeria.
5. CAC has 13 beliefs, which are called tenets. There were originally 11 tenets, but the church added the 12th and 13th in 1940. These include the Trinity, tithing, and baptism of the Holy Spirit. The last two are divine healing and faith in God.
6. Each CAC congregation reportedly has a specific branch name.
7. CAC is more than a traditional church. Unlike other churches that restrict themselves to ministry or just one school, CAC has more developed programmatic and multi-institutional ministries. With an annual growth of about 15,000 members, the church has one seminary in Ile-Ife, two universities, nine high schools, a printing press and more. Among CAC established educational ministries are a Bible Training College, a Pastoral Training College in Ibadan (1946), a School of Prophets and Evangelists at Ilesa (1949), a defunct Teachers’ College at Efon Alaaye (1955), and a Faith Home at Ede (1959). There also are grammar schools at Ibadan, Efon Alaaye and Iperu (all in 1960), Ilesa (1962), Akure (1964) and Odo-Owa (1970).[26]
Women and the Church
Traditionally, women are viewed by nature as caregivers and wherever they are, they give supportive roles. They are usually not seen in the forefront. Women’s supportive roles can easily be seen in most churches, and they are almost always the majority in terms of the numerical strength of the church. As affirmed by Philomena Njeri Mwaura, “women still dominate the pews in mainline churches, African Instituted Churches, Charismatic movements and Pentecostal Churches.” Women give both their time and resources in the support and growth of these churches; however, hardly are they allowed a space in the leadership structure of the church. One then ponders why women are still in the majority in churches? Responding to the above, Mwaura, posits that “African women experience Christianity as empowering. It gave them a place on which to stand from which they could challenge the male dominated sacred world and traditions.” In the case of the Christ Apostolic Church in Nigeria, it cannot be totally affirmed that the women are making this challenge. However, despite the above, women continue to give their total support to the growth and expansion of the church. Mwaura asserts that the enthusiasm with which women embrace evangelism cannot be overemphasized, in agreement with Elizabeth Isichei and Bengt Sundkler who write, “’women were often the first converts and the most enthusiastic local evangelists.’”[27] Mwaura affirms a similar observation by Isabel Phiri who observes not only the significance of women’s roles, but also the bias of scholarship on religion in Africa that centralizes men while being “’generally been silent on women’s involvement. Yet it has long been recognized that the majority of church members are women.’”[28] These observations are reiterated in the works of other scholars on women and religion in Africa, including many projects of the Circle of Concerned African Women Theologians.
This paper is not disputing the fact that women are not visible or not recognized in the church, but it is contending more specifically that women are not prominent among the authorities in the main structure, administrative function, and hierarchy of the church. Women may preach and have administrative roles among women and within women’s organizations. Their full participation and exercise of leadership is hampered and restricted by taboos surrounding mensuration and childbirth, so in most churches women still occupy subordinate roles.
Women in Christ Apostolic Church
Women have always played a role in churches, including having a pivotal role in helping the spread of Christianity in the early days. For example, at the beginning of the first century CE, when society was very patriarchal and women were regarded as little else than assets, Jesus brought change that made women a part of His ministry. Galatians 3:27-28 affirms this teaching in the assertion “For all of you who were baptized into Christ have clothed yourselves with Christ. In Christ there is neither bond nor free, Jew nor Greek, male nor female” (NLT). There were several women who were patrons to Paul as well—such as Phoebe, Joanna, Mary of Magdala, and others.[29]
Yet, CAC does not have a single woman among their leadership, past or present, not in the ranks of their past or current president, nor amongst the general evangelists or general secretaries. The leaders are all men. Women in the CAC do not have important roles in the administrative leadership of the church. Women do rise to the level of deacons. According to an informant,[30] women in CAC leadership positions are only those within the women’s groups, such as the Good Women Organization. It is high time the church begins to look at ways of ensuring that women are represented at the decision-making levels. Hence, the need for CAC Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR).
CSR and Empowering Women in CAC
The World Business Council for Sustainable Development considers CSR as the continuing commitment of companies to economic development while improving the quality of life of its workforce and family members, as well as the local community and society at large.[31] The EC Green Paper defines CSR as a practice whereby companies integrate social and environmental concerns into their business operations and in their interaction with stakeholders on a voluntary basis, while being aware that this behavior leads more and more to the sustainable success of their business.[32] Many organizations are now focusing on CSR by ensuring financial and social inclusiveness for women. They are also required by the state to play vital roles in boosting the economy through encouraging women’s employment in every section of society. CSR has emerged as a means to address societal demands that go beyond a company’s core business, that is profit-making. Can the church join in on this?
According to P.K. Boafo, John Wesley argued that Christianity is essentially a social religion. Wesley’s ethical teaching encouraged individual members to become the gospel leaven to transform society.[33] From this perspective, CSR is embedded in a Christian’s social responsibility towards the community. The objective in Wesley’s social ethics was that the Christians, once transformed, would move on to raise the quality of life around them to make social justice, equity, and integrity possible in the community. (This is the function of CSR in corporate businesses which, once they begin to make profit, ensures that the community around them also is impacted—they give back to the community.) Wesley’s theology is essentially transformational in character and impact.[34] Some see that viewpoint as what is being adopted by the corporate world.
Many churches understand that they have a duty to their communities, and they respond to the needs of their immediate communities, without identifying their acts as CSR. An example is that of the Deeper Life Church’s contribution towards community development and improvement of the quality of life of the people of Gbagada, Lagos state, by constructing multiple projects, including a link bridge on Oduwaiye Street, Gbagada, traffic lights on a number of streets, and a 600-capacity multilevel car park to ease human and vehicular movements in the area (Sunnews). Pastor Adeboye also told his members to “’go out, don’t only preach the gospel, put something in their hands, let them have a job.’”[35] From the aforesaid example, the concept of CSR has its root in Christianity, and the church is meant to be an example for the world to follow and not the other way round. CSR is a conscious avenue for Christians to make a visible impact in various key areas of society.
Some companies are initiating numerous CSR activities to encourage women’s empowerment. Yet, it has been observed that the companies do not offer reflection on the activities with proper training about gender-related issues such as women’s access to education, women’s health, and women rights, etc. Companies should not only encourage women’s empowerment as a part of CSR in rural areas but also should initiate empowerment of women at their organizational levels. If we relate this to what happens in churches, we note there are actually programs to encourage women’s empowerment, but these programs are basically for women within the church and often the programs are not effective as there are no funds.
A Framework for Empowerment of Women in CAC
African communities are diverse and greatly different in culture and religious worldview. However, the following formula can be a trans-cultural model to aid in empowering women in society which may also be applied to the CAC structure for the empowerment of women. The first philosophic pathway to women’s empowerment is to advocate for change in Africans’ gender relations. Madipoane Masenya is correct when she laments that despite much research on the need for gender balance, Africans still are afraid to face change even if the change would lead to a better life for the marginalized. The change should start with the ordination of women.[36] In the CAC women should be ordained alongside their male counterparts. S. Greene opines that women should be put in visible places of leadership as a bid to empower them, most especially within the church. Women should be made to serve as Sunday school teachers, communion servers, scripture readers, offerors of opening prayer during a worship service, and they should also be made members of the boards of trustees of the churches. [37]
Sharon Hodde Miller asserts that the stereotype cycle must be broken. For instance, women are sometimes stereotyped as being less capable and most times this inhibits their performance. Stereotypes about women are both sociological and psychological, so the cycle can be tough to break.[38] For instance, if women believe that they are not capable of thinking theologically, or not capable of leading and teaching in the church effectively, that stereotype perpetuates an unfortunate cycle in which women are hesitant to even try. To break this cycle, husbands, fathers, and brothers, must begin to challenge their wives, daughters, and sisters to do varied tasks, affirming that they can do so. Women, too, must begin to have positive and progressive outlooks about themselves.
The primary point of change is the social role created by gender differences which results from the different opportunities, challenges, experiences, and restrictions implanted in social roles created for men and women.[39] As each child grows, he or she is socialized into gender roles. Therefore, if a change in gender roles occurs, psychological differences between men and women will also change. The church should, therefore, strive to identify the social role composition and identity of women for appropriate empowerment efforts. Once needs of the women are identified, churches, corporate bodies, NGOs, and individuals should look inward to examine the dynamics and functioning of their organizations and take the necessary steps to improve performance of the organizations in regard to meeting the needs of women.[40] Public dialogue, media campaigns, advocacy and regulatory efforts can be useful in correcting the age-old patriarchal orientation in Africa. This can be ensured through a re-orientation effort from the family level to the local level and to the society at large, all seeking to enact a women’s empowerment agenda.
Another framework for women’s empowerment in CAC is to engage in a serious campaign supporting women’s education. Education is a major means of empowering women. The Circle of Concerned African Women Theologians is an advocate for women’s education. More than this, the effort should not only be directed toward women within the church, but it should also be re-channeled to include women and young ladies who are living in local communities and in challenging environments. Counselling, training, and workshops on women’s basic education still are needed in some African communities.[41]
In conclusion, this discourse is an attempt examine how women can be empowered through corporate social responsibility and how the church (CAC) can ensure that women are recognized and are visible in leadership positions within the church. This paper advocates that there is a need for women to be empowered, and the church (CAC) should include women’s empowerment as one focus of its corporate social responsibility practices. Empowerment of women requires the contribution of committed people, generous funding agencies, and strong political will.
NOTES
Jelaludin Ahmed, Aurora Angeli, Alemtsehay Biru, Silvana Salvini, “Gender Issues, Population, and Development in Ethiopia: In-Depth Studies from the 1994 Population and Housing Census in Ethiopia, Italian Multi-Bi Research Project ETH/92/P01,” (Addis Ababa: Central Statistical Authority (CSA)/ Roma: Institute for Population Research-National Research Council, 2001). ↑
Program of Action Adopted at the International Conference on Population and Development, Cairo, 1994 (New York: United Nations Population Fund: 2004). ↑
Nina Wallerstein, “Powerlessness, Empowerment and Health: Implications for Health Promotion Programs” American Journal of Health Promotion 6, no. 3 (1992):197-205, https://doi.org/10.4278/0890-1171-6.3.197. ↑
J. Rappaport, “Terms of Empowerment/Examples of Prevention: Toward a Theory for Community Psychology” Journal of Psychology 15, no. 2 (1987): 121-148. ↑
Faitira Manuere and Neria Phiri, “A Literature Review of Women Empowerment and Development in Zimbabwe: A Look at New Insights and Perspectives” Journal of Public Administration and Governance 8, no. 4 (2018). ↑
N. Kabeer, “Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment: A Critical Analysis of the Third Millennium Development Goal” Gender and Development 13, no. 1 (2005): 13-36, https://doi.org/10.1080/13552070512331332273. ↑
N. Page, C. E. Czuba, and E. Cheryl, “Empowerment: What Is It?” Journal of Extension 37, no. 5 (Oct 1999). ↑
Anju Malhotra, et al., Innovation for Women’s Empowerment and Gender Equality (Washington: International Center for Research on Women, 2009). ↑
C. B. Aspy and D. S. Sandhu, Empowering Women for Equity: A Counseling Approach (Alexandria, Virginia: American Counseling Association, 1999). ↑
Endalcachew Bayeh, “The Role of Empowering Women and Achieving Gender Equality to the Sustainable Development of Ethiopia” Pacific Science Review, Humanities and Social Sciences 2, no. 1 (2016): 37-42, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psrb.2016.09.013. ↑
J. Rowlands, Questioning Empowerment: Working with Women in Honduras (Oxford: Oxfam, 1997). ↑
World Bank, “World Development Report 2012: Gender Equity and Development,”
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Barack Obama, “Inaugural Address by President Barack Obama” Obama White House Archives, January 21, 2013, https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2013/01/21/inaugural-address-president-barack-obama. ↑
Kofi Annan, “No Tool for Development More Effective Than Empowerment of Women” United Nations Meetings and Press Releases, https://press.un.org/en/2005/sgsm9863.doc.htm. ↑
P. Gifford, African Christianity: Its Public Role (London: Hurst and Company, 1998). ↑
A. Anderson, An Introduction to Pentecostalism-Global Charismatic Christianity (Cambridge: Cambridge, 2004). ↑
H.G. Cox, Fire from Heaven: The Rise of Pentecostal Spirituality and the Reshaping of Religion in the Twenty-First Century (Massachusetts: DeCapo Press, 1996). ↑
Kwabena Asamoah-Gyadu, “African Pentecostal/Charismatic Christianity: An Overview,” Lausanne World Pulse Archives, Issue 8 (2006), https://lausanneworldpulse.com/themedarticles-php/464/08-2006. ↑
O. Kalu, African Christianity: An African Story (Eritrea: African World Press, Inc., 2007). ↑
A. Anderson, An Introduction to Pentecostalism-Global Charismatic Christianity (Cambridge: Cambridge Press, 2004). The Aladura movement/churches began in Nigeria before 1920 as a means of incorporating “African elements” into Christianity and was part of the emergence of African indigenous churches across the continent. ↑
Kwabena Asamoah-Gyadu, “African Pentecostal/Charismatic Christianity: An Overview” Lausanne World Pulse Archives, Issue 8 (2006), https://lausanneworldpulse.com/themedarticles-php/464/08-2006. ↑
E. A. Offiong, “Faith Clinic: The Pentecostal Approach to Solving Nigerian Socio-Economic Problems” Calabar Journal of Religious Studies, 1, no. 1 (1999). ↑
Olubadan is the royal title of a king. ↑
Allan Anderson, African Reformation: African Initiated Christianity in the 20th Century (New Jersey: Africa World Press, 2001), 86-88. ↑
The historical information about CAC was culled from the Christ Apostolic Church-Faith Chapel website, cacfc.org.uk. ↑
P. N. Mwaura, “Gender and Power in African Christianity: African Instituted Churches and Pentecostal Churches,” in African Christianity: An African Story, ed. Ogbu U. Kalu (Eritrea: African World Press, 2007), 411, passim. ↑
P. N. Mwaura, “Gender and Power in African Christianity: African Instituted Churches and Pentecostal Churches,” in African Christianity: An African Story, ed. Ogbu U. Kalu (Eritrea: African World Press, 2007), 412. ↑
K. J. Torjesen, When Women Were Priests (San Francisco: Harper Collins Publications, 1995). ↑
Interview by author. ↑
Raluca Andreea Popa, “The Corporate Social Responsibility Practices in the Context of Sustainable Development: The Case of Romania” Elsevier Procedia Economics and Finance 23 (2015): 1279-1285. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212567115003950. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2212-5671(15)00395-0.
Corporate Social Responsibility: A Business Contribution to Sustainable Development, 2002, https://community-wealth.org. ↑
P. K. Boafo, John Wesley’s Theology and Public Life: His Sociopolitical Thought in the Ghanian Context (Accra: Asempa Publishers, 2014). ↑
Paul Kwabena Boafo, John Wesley’s Theology and Public Life: His Sociopolitical Thought in the Ghanaian Context (Accra: Asempa Publishers, 2014).
Adedeji Ademigbuji and David Adeojo, “Embracing CSR: The RCCG Example” The Nation, January 22, 2016, https://thenationonlineng.net/embracing-csr-the-rccg-example/. ↑
Madiopane Masenya, “The Place of the Bible in the Quest for Women’s Emancipation in Africa,” in Biblical Studies and Feminism in the African Context: In Honour of the Late Dr. Dorcas Olubanke Akintunde, ed. Olabiji A. Adewale (Ibadan: National Association for Biblical Studies Western Zone, 2012), 1-2. ↑
S. Greene, “3 Practical Changes Churches Can Make to Empower Women” CBE International, October 2017, cbeinterntional.org. ↑
Sharon Hodde Miller, “How to Empower the Women in Your Church,” Christianity Today, (November 1, 2012), https://www.christianitytoday.com/women-leaders/2012/november/how-to-empower-women-in-your-church.html. ↑
L. T. Olaifa, “Gender Portrayal in Yoruba Folktales and Its Implications on Social Development” in Polity Debacle and the Burden of Being in Africa, Proceedings of the Third Biennial International Conference of the Faculty of Arts (Ibadan: University of Ibadan Faculty of Arts, Ibadan, 2017). ↑
Mridula Sahay and Kuldeep Kumar, “Augmenting Corporate Governance through System Dynamics” Corporate Ownership & Control 13, nos. 1-9 (2015): 1063-1070, https://doi.org/10.22495/cocv13i1c9p8. ↑
M. Atere and D. D. Adegbite, “The Present and Future of Feminism in Biblical Studies in Nigeria,” in The Present State and the Future of Biblical Studies in Africa: Essays in Honour of Samuel Oyinloye Abogunrin, ed. S. O. Abogunrin, J. D. Gwamna, A. O. Dada; Hope E. Amolo (Ibadan: NABIS, 2017).
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